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February, 1925 tion similar losses, or expenses are incurred’ by the carriers as at the point of origin. Again, freight seldom ends its journey until it has been moved from the property of the carrier to that of the consignee. As an example of what this further step may mean, a shipment of grain was landed at New York on the west side of Manhattan. It was carted about four miles through the city’s streets. It cost more to move it that short distance than it did to transport it three thousand miles across the At- lantic plus the marine insurance for the voyage. Another important transportation op- EVEN MODERN PIERS IN TEE Mee Ve eration remains to be considered. Rail- roads bring freight to tidewater where it is transferred to vessels, and ocean cargoes are unloaded and placed on cars for inland delivery. Often two such exchanges take place between the origin and destination of all imports and exports. What is the cost of such trans-shipment and how can it be kept at a minimum? It is here that the problems of port design and operation come into play. It is not enough to say that the cars should meet the ships so that the transfer can be made directly from one to the other without any intermediate gap. Many shipping men like to work both sides of their ship simultaneously taking on and discharging half of their cargo over the off-shore side of the NEW YORK NOT SUFFICIENTLY LONG. At THEIR BERTHS? NOTE MARINE REVIEW vessel from and to lighters. The ma- rine operations of the lighters and the facilities for handling their cargoes to and from shore thus have added im- portance, Furthermore a certain proportion of freight will always be trucked to and from the piers, while some must go into storage, or be received from ware- houses where it has been accumulated. The loading of a ship is a difficult operation “that calls for skill and ex- perience, the idea being to secure the maximum of both weight and _ bulk. The weights must be stowed to main- tain the trim and seaworthiness of the vessel and there must be no vacant TEMPORARY spaces unfilled than could accommodate light bulky materials. In order to accomplish this proper loading the man charged with the task must know in advance of what his cargo is to consist. Then it must be near at hand so he can call for it and have it delivered promptly as needed. If freight is brought to the ship in cars, there must be supporting railroad yards near by within easy and im- mediate access so that the cars can be delivered as wanted, according to the goods they contain and the different parts of the hold they must go into as the loading progresses. Similarly lighters with various types of cargo should be within hail so that they can come alongside as and when needed to go into the . ship. a A knowledge of these considerations is necessary in order properly to con- sider dock and pier construction, and the various warehouses, tracks, streets and freight handling equipment that will be most advantageous. In the early days, before harbor im- provements as we now know them were undertaken, piers were built out into deep water to reach the ship and the ship tied up at the end of the pier. Later “bulkheads” or shore lines were established, and slips were dredged alongside of the piers to accommodate the vessels. Sometimes sheds were built on the piers to hold freight. The cargo was mostly handled by man THE STEAMSHIP .OLYMPIC AND OTHER VESSELS OF EXTENSIONS TO PIERS power or by simple winches and tackle, horses being used to furnish the power. The old type of narrow piers pro- jecting out into the harbor are a heri- tage that has descended to plague us even to the present day. Instead of having two floors for the separate ac- commodation of inbound and outbound freight with truck access to each floor, many are of the one deck type where freight, trucks and men are prone to get mixed up in almost hopeless con- fusion. The land end, over which all trucks bringing or taking away cargo must pass is a veritable “bottle neck,” and a place of constant congestion. These piers seldom have “aprons.” In other words the walls of the shed are built almost at the side of the pier instead of being placed back a sufficient